Assignment task:
After studying the materials illustrated below, write a short essay either defending or attacking Alexander's legacy.
Be sure to review the academic expectations for your submission.
Submission Instructions:
- Contribute a minimum of 2 pages. It should include at least 2 academic sources, formatted and cited in APA.
Alexander
In the previous module, we ended with the Peloponnesian War. In this war, the different city-states of Greece fought each other to the point of annihilation. After the war, the Greek city-states were too weak to recover. In the north, there was the kingdom of Macedon. King Phillip ruled over the Macedonians. This type of government was contrary to democracy, which was invented by the Greeks to the south, especially in Athens. King Phillip had a dream of uniting the whole of Greece.
His son, Alexander, who had studied with Aristotle, became king of Macedonia when his father was killed. Alexander was only twenty years old. It is said that he always carried with him a copy of Homer's Iliad, and that he was proud of being a descendant of the legendary warrior Achilles. Alexander decided to continue the project that his father, King Phillip, had started, uniting all the Hellenes. First, he made sure that all the Greeks were in by establishing himself as leader of all the city-states. Although many Greeks were not happy with this idea, Alexander would not tolerate any revolt in disagreement with his project.
An example of this was crushing the city of Thebes to make a lesson out of it. After having all the city-states under his control, he decided to head east toward the Persian empire. Years before, the Persians had attempted to conquer Greece, but the Greeks fought together against the common enemy. Alexander has the dream of uniting all the known world at the time in universal culture. Although many consider him a conqueror and a great leader, others might see him as a bloodthirsty tyrant. One way or another, these deeds turned Alexander into a carrier of Greek culture to all the lands he invaded. His reach went all the way to India, where his soldiers decided that they would not keep going and turned back.
Today, the most popular religion in the world has a Hellenistic name gives us an idea of the reach the Greek culture had because of Alexander's conquests. The word Christianity comes from the title given to Jesus of Nazareth by those who followed him. For the early Christians, Jesus was the Messiah talked about in the Old Testament, which was translated to Greek in Alexandria hundreds of years before Jesus. The translation of messiah to Greek gave us the word, Christ.
When Alexander died, his empire was divided among his generals through a series of bloody wars. Egypt ended up in the hands of Ptolemy, the ancestor of the last pharaoh of Egypt, Cleopatra. The Ptolemy lineage was interested in spreading culture and knowledge, so they founded the library at Alexandria. These cities controlled by the Greek dynasties were cosmopolitan, modern, and urban. They emphasized the development of culture in all areas, especially in Alexandria. In a way, Alexandria replaced Athens as the main city of the known world. In Alexandria, there were important advances in astronomy, mathematics, geography, and medicine. Euclid's theorems, for example, are still valid today as they were two thousand years ago (Films Media Group, 2008).
Philosophy
As we saw in the previous module, one of the greatest contributions to the world from the Greeks was philosophy. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle had systematically developed reasoning about reality, life, and the world, proving that we could reach the truth through reason, logic, and episteme. The Hellenistic schools of philosophy were not so sure if it was worth it to use reason to understand the world. The world the Greeks knew so far had crumbled right in front of their eyes due to the Peloponnesian War and the invasions from Phillip of Macedon and his son Alexander. Now the Greeks were subjected to a king, although they had invented democracy. These new philosophers are sometimes considered a waste of time to even think about reaching the truth through reason if, in the end, whoever used force wins.
The skeptics, for example, considered it impossible to reach knowledge. If it is impossible to know anything with certainty, there is nothing to do about reality, truth, and knowledge. When we think about it, we realize that to say that it is impossible to reach an understanding might be false, since we don't know. So, skepticism contradicts itself. It might be healthy to doubt certain things that come our way, but to be an extreme skeptic might not be healthy. The skeptics realized that it was impossible to find an unchanging point of reference in such an unstable world. In uncertain times, it is hard to think there is certainty anywhere.
The cynics considered it necessary to renounce social values to find spiritual satisfaction. Worrying about politics or social issues was not worth it. In the end, knowing won't save us from falling. From the cynics, we derive our English word "cynical." Again, lacking proof in real life of effective ways to show that truth could prevail, the cynics were doubtful of the best effort some people would put forward to govern a city when force imposed itself.
For the Epicureans, it was important to live life avoiding pain and seeking pleasure. The pleasure the Epicureans valued was being at peace with oneself. We did not need to worry about death because, for Epicurus (341-270 BCE), we never experienced our death. So, the focus was on living. The individual was too small within empires to be worried or concerned with social forms they would not be able to change. There were natural and necessary desires, like food and sleep. And there were also unnecessary natural desires, such as the desire for sex. For Epicureans, we needed to learn how to recognize the difference. We did not need to waste our lives pursuing vain pleasures (Palmer, 2020).
The Stoics were detached from passion and emotion. They wanted to learn to harmonize with the will of nature (Fiero, 2016). This group of philosophers met at the stoa, a type of balcony or terrace, and that is where they got their name. The Stoics would be content with what they had, and whatever happened to them, they considered it part of nature's will. As we can see, the philosophy developed during Hellenism was focused on the role of the individual more than on society.
Art
Following the philosophies developed during Hellenism, art reflected more on the individual than a universal symbol. Suddenly, the focus was on large and monumental architecture (Fiero, 2016). Utilitarian structures like lighthouses, theaters, and libraries became the norm. These were examples of what was needed to produce cosmopolitan cities that would provide for higher culture. In sculpture, we see more intimate portraits of subjects.
Apollo Belvedere is one great example of the historical moment, which "reveals a sudden move away from High Classical austerity to a more animated, feminized, and self-conscious figural style" (Fiero, 2021). The figures were more approachable because they reflected the ones looking at them, although some were gods and goddesses.
Nike by Pythocritos of Rhodes is another example of what we are saying related to Hellenistic art in sculpture. As we look at this sculpture, we see a figure moving forward with her wings spread against the wind. There is an intent on conquering and trying to reach something.
Maybe one of the more dramatic examples of Hellenistic sculpture is Laocoon and his sons. The details of the body of the Laocoon are incredible. As we observe this work of art, we can see the veins in the arms of the central figure protruding as this man makes an effort to liberate himself and his sons from the serpent. Looking at these sculptures slowly will give us an experience of how artists were reflecting humanity through the incredibly accomplished expressions on the faces of the subjects.
Great examples of how art in the Hellenistic period showed humanity in daily activities and suffering are the "Dying Gaul," the "Boy with Thorn," and the "Boxer at Rest." If we stop and look at these examples of Hellenistic sculpture, we marvel at the detail given to humanity in situations that are not necessarily glorious; these are human beings being normal and common folk. It is fascinating to think that artists wanted to take the time and effort to reflect the humanity within suffering. A strong man on the floor was dealing with failure. In the "Boy with Thorn," we see a reflection of us. We understand this boy's pain trying to get rid of that thorn. We have been there. We know how it feels.
The "Boxer at Rest" might be one of the most intense examples of how Hellenistic art reflects the dignity of human emotions. The boxer is looking up as if saying, "Do I still have to do this?". We can observe the scars on his face and the pieces of cloth that cover his hands. This man seems tired, but he still has to show up to the fight.
One of the most famous examples of Hellenistic art is the "Venus of Milo." We need to stop for a minute and look at the detail given to the shape of the fabric that covers the lower part of Venus. Although Venus is a goddess, we see a woman here. We do not see an extraordinary, out-of-this-world representation of a human being. Venus is simple. Maybe its greatness resembles our innermost nature.
References:
Chambers, M. et al. (2003). The western experience (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill. Eighth Edition.
Coffin, J.G. (2008). Western civilizations: Their history and their culture. W.W. Norton and Company.
Fiero, Gloria. (2016). The humanistic tradition: Book 1 (7th ed.). McGraw Hill Education.
McNeill, William H. (1973). The Ecumene: Story of humanity. Harper and Row Publishers.
Perry, M. et al. (2007). Western civilization: Ideas, politics, and society (8th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company.
Palmer, D. (2020). Looking at philosophy: The unbearable heaviness of philosophy made lighter. McGraw Hill.
Spielvogel, J.J. (1997). Western civilization: Volume I: To 1715. West Publishing.