Introduction:

In molecular biology and genetics, mutations are changes in the genomic sequence: the DNA sequence of a cell's genome or the RNA or DNA sequence of a virus. They can be stated as sudden and spontaneous changes in the cell. Mutations are caused through radiation, viruses and mutagenic chemicals, and also errors which take place throughout meiosis or DNA replication. They can as well be induced by the organism itself, by cellular processes like hyper-mutation. A mutation is passed to the offspring stably, except it is a dynamic mutation.

Mutation:

The cellular machinery which copies DNA at times makes mistakes. Such mistakes change the sequence of a gene. This is termed as a mutation. There are numerous kinds of mutations. A point mutation is a mutation in which one 'letter' of the genetic code is changed to the other. Lengths of DNA can as well be deleted or inserted in a gene; these are as well mutations. Finally, genes or parts of genes can become inverted or duplicated. Typical rates of mutation are between 10^-10 and 10^-12  mutations per base pair of DNA per generation. 

Most of the mutations are thought to be neutral with regards to fitness. Just a small part of the genome of eukaryotes includes coding segments; however some non-coding DNA is comprised in gene regulation or other cellular functions, it is probable which most base changes would have no fitness effect.

Most of the mutations which contain any phenotypic effect are deleterious. Mutations which result in amino acid replacements can change the shape of a protein, potentially changing or removing its function. This can lead to shortfalls in biochemical pathways or interfere by the procedure of development. Organisms are adequately integrated that most random changes will not generate a fitness benefit. Merely a very small percentage of mutations are advantageous. The ratio of neutral to deleterious to advantageous mutations is unknown and probably differs with respect to the details of locus in question and environment. 

Mutation restricts the rate of evolution. The rate of evolution can be deduced in terms of nucleotide replacements in a lineage per generation. Substitution is the replacement of an allele by the other in a population. This is a two step procedure: First a mutation takes place in an individual, making a new allele. This allele afterward rises in frequency for fixation in the population. 

The rate of evolution is k = 2Nvu (in diploids) 

Here, 

k is nucleotide substitutions, 

N is the effective population size, 

v is the rate of mutation and 

u is the proportion of mutants which finally fix in the population. 

Mutation require not be limiting over short time durations. The rate of evolution deduced above is given as a steady state equation; it supposes the system is at equilibrium. Given the time frames for a single mutant to fix, it is not clear if populations are ever at symmetry. A change in environment can cause formerly neutral alleles to encompass selective values; in short term, evolution can run on 'stored' variation and therefore is independent of mutation rate. Other mechanisms can as well contribute selectable variation. Recombination makes new combinations of alleles (or new alleles) through joining sequences having separate micro-evolutionary histories in a population. Gene flow can as well supply the gene pool having variants. Of course, the ultimate source of such variants is mutation.

Causes of mutation:

There are mainly two classes of mutations: spontaneous mutations and induced mutations which are caused by mutagens.

Spontaneous mutation:

The Spontaneous mutations on the molecular level can be caused by:

1) Tautomerism: A base is changed through the repositioning of a hydrogen atom, modifying the hydrogen bonding pattern of that base resultant in wrong base pairing throughout replication.

2) Depurination: Loss of a purine base (A or G) to make the apurinic site (AP site).

3) Deamination: Hydrolysis modifies a normal base to the atypical base having a keto group in place of the original amine group. Illustrations comprise C → U and A → HX (hypoxanthine) that can be corrected through DNA repair methods; and 5MeC (5-methylcytosine) → T, which is less probable to be identified as a mutation because thymine is a normal DNA base.

4) Slipped strand mispairing: Denaturation of the new strand from the template all through replication, followed by renaturation in a various spot (slipping). This can lead to the deletions or insertions.

Induced mutation:

The Induced mutations on the molecular level can be caused due to:

1) Chemicals:

- Hydroxylamine NH₂OH

- Base analogs (example: BrdU)

- Alkylating agents (example: N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea). Such agents can mutate both replicating and non-replicating DNA. In contrary, a base analog can merely mutate the DNA if the analog is included in replicating the DNA. Each of such classes of chemical mutagens consists of certain effects which then lead to the transversions, transitions and deletions.

- Agents which form DNA adducts (example: ochratoxin A metabolites)

- DNA intercalating agents (example: ethidium bromide)

- DNA cross-linkers

- Oxidative damage

- Nitrous acid transforms amine groups on A and C to diazo groups, modifying their hydrogen bonding patterns that leads to wrong base pairing throughout replication.

2) Radiation:

- Ultraviolet radiation: The two nucleotide bases in DNA - cytosine and thymine - are the most vulnerable to radiation which can change their properties. UV light can induce adjacent pyrimidine bases in the DNA strand to become covalently attached as a pyrimidine dimer. UV radiation, specifically longer-wave UVA, can as well cause oxidative damage to DNA.

- Ionizing radiation

- Radioactive decay, like 14C in DNA

- Viral infections

DNA consists of so-called hotspots, where mutations take place up to 100 times more often than the normal mutation rate. A hotspot can be at an unusual base, example: 5-methylcytosine.

Classifying Mutations:

There are basically five kinds of chromosomal mutations.

1) Structural Effects:

The series of a gene can be modified in a number of ways. Gene mutations contain varying consequences on health based on where they take place and whether they modify the function of necessary proteins. Structurally, mutations can be categorized as:

a) Small-scale mutations: These are the mutations which influence one or a few nucleotides. These comprise: 

b) Point mutations: Point mutations comprise an exchange of a single nucleotide for the other one. Most general is the transition which exchanges a purine for a purine (A ↔ G) or a pyrimidine for a pyrimidine, (C ↔ T). Point mutations are frequently caused by chemicals or malfunction of the DNA replication. A transition can be caused due to nitrous acid, base mis-pairing or mutagenic base analogs like 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU). Less common is a transversions, which exchanges a purine for the pyrimidine or a pyrimidine for a purine (C/T ↔ A/G). A point mutation can be reversed by the other point mutation, in which the nucleotide is changed back to the original state (that is, true reversion) or by second-site reversion (a complementary mutation in another place which outcomes in regained gene functionality). These changes are categorized as transitions or transversions. An illustration of transversions is adenine (A) being transformed into a cytosine (C).

c) Missense mutations: Missense mutations code for a dissimilar amino acid.

d) Nonsense mutations: Nonsense mutations code for a 'stop' and can shorten the protein.

e) Insertions: Insertions are mutations which add up one or more additional nucleotides to the DNA. They are generally caused through transposable elements or errors all through replication of repeating elements (example: AT repeats).

f) Deletions: Deletions eliminate one or more nucleotides from the DNA. Similar to insertions, such mutations can modify the reading frame of the gene. They are irreversible, large-scale mutations. Large scale mutations in chromosomal structure might comprise: 

g) Amplifications: Amplifications (or gene duplications) lead to the multiple copies of all chromosomal areas, raising the dosage of the genes positioned in them.

2) Functional Effects:

a) Loss-of-function mutations: This kind of mutations is the result of gene product containing less or no function. If the allele consists of a complete loss of function (that is, null allele) it is often termed as an amorphic mutation. Phenotypes related by such mutations are most frequently recessive.

b) Gain-of-function mutations: This kind of mutations changes the gene product in such a way that it gains a new and abnormal function. Such mutations generally encompass dominant phenotypes, frequently termed as a neo-morphic mutation.

c) Dominant negative mutations: This kind of mutations (as well termed as anti-morphic mutations) has a modified gene product which acts antagonistically to the wild-kind allele.

These mutations generally outcome in a modified molecular function (frequently inactive) and are characterized through a dominant or semi-dominant phenotype. In humans, Marfan syndrome is an illustration of a dominant negative mutation taking place in an autosomal dominant disease.

d) Lethal mutations: Lethal mutations are the mutations which lead to a phenotype unable of effective reproduction.

3) By facet of phenotype influenced:

a) Morphological mutations: This mutation usually affects the outward appearance of an individual. Mutations can modify the height of a plant or change it from smooth to the rough seeds.

b) Biochemical mutations: Biochemical mutations outcome in lesions stopping the enzymatic pathway. Frequently, morphological mutants are the direct outcome of a mutation due to the enzymatic pathway.

4) By inheritance:

The human genome includes two copies of each gene: a paternal and a maternal allele.

a) Wild type or Homozygous non-mutated: This takes place if neither of the alleles is mutated.

b) A Heterozygous mutation: This mutation takes place if just one allele is mutated.

c) A Homozygous mutation: This mutation is when both the paternal and maternal alleles encompass a similar mutation.

d) Compound heterozygous mutations: This mutations or a genetic compound is when the paternal and maternal alleles encompass two different mutations.

5) Special classes:

a) Conditional mutation: This is a mutation which consists of wild-type (or less severe) phenotype beneath certain 'permissive' ecological conditions and a mutant phenotype beneath certain 'restrictive' conditions. For illustration, a temperature-sensitive mutation can cause cell death at high temperature however might have no deleterious effects at a lower temperature.

Harmful mutations:

Changes in the DNA caused by mutation can cause inaccuracy in the protein sequence, making partially or fully non-functional proteins. To function properly, each and every cell based on thousands of proteins to function in the right places at the right times. If a mutation modifies a protein that plays a vital role in the body, a medical condition can outcome. A condition caused by mutations in one or more genes is termed as a genetic disorder. Though, just a small percentage of mutations can cause genetic disorders; most encompass no impact on health. For illustration, a few mutations modify a gene's DNA base sequence however don't change the function of the protein prepared by the gene.

When a mutation is present in a germ cell, it can give mount to offspring which carries the mutation in all of its cells. This is the case in the hereditary diseases. On other hand, a mutation can take place in a somatic cell of an organism. These mutations will be present in all the descendants of this cell and some mutations can cause the cell to become malignant, and therefore cause cancer.

Beneficial Mutations:

An extremely small percentage of all mutations in reality encompass a positive effect. These mutations lead to the new versions of proteins which help an organism and its future generations better adapt to modification in their environment.

For illustration, a specific 32 base pair deletion in human CCR5 (CCR5- Δ32) confers HIV resistance to homozygote and delays AIDS onset in the heterozygote. The CCR5 mutation is much common in such of European descent. One theory for the etiology of the relatively high frequency of CCR5- Δ32 in the European population is that it conferred resistance to the bubonic plague in mid 14th century Europe. People who had this mutation were capable to survive infection therefore its frequency in the population increased. It could as well describe why this mutation is not found in Africa where the bubonic plague never arrived. A latest theory states the selective pressure on the CCR5 Δ 32 mutation has been caused by smallpox rather than bubonic plague.

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